This is an essay I wrote for my Modernity of Religion class. The topic was of our own choosing (which I've never done before, surprisingly enough) and during a lecture my lecturer boldly stated that there had been no mainstream ascetic movements in the Western world since the Protestant ascetic ethic helped set up capitalism (an idea propogated by Max Weber in his work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism"). This got me thinking about asceticism (which is, by the way, the rejection of worldly pleasures for a higher or nobler goal, think Tibetan or medieval monks living in poverty) and the forms that it takes in our society.

I know a lot of people in the environmental movement (I personally know several Save Happy Valley campaigners, and organisation that is mentioned later in the essay) and lots of Neopagans, Wiccans etc. I thought it would be prudent to canvas their opinions on the subject, some of which have been included in the essay. The issue of environmentalism struck close to home as New Zealand (where I come from) is particularly eco-friendly (or tries to be). Environmental activists often share the same sort of fervour seen in religious folk, and so on that train of thought I started researching this essay...

Before everyone gets up in arms though, (nobody these days likes to be called religious), let me emphasise that this is an academic essay, for my religious studies class. I'm analysing religious properties of the environmental movement, not claiming they all uniformly worship the same god or anything. However, the religious concepts imbued in our perception of our planet are fascinating and worth further examination.

(All footnotes have been removed due to formatting issues (I'm a bit of a n00b) I've included most of the bibliography, although the websites don't really show up.)

In today’s world, the hysteria over the condition of the planet is reaching epic proportions. Movies, documentaries, newspaper and magazine articles all warn the world of the dire need to reform our ecological practices. The problems of pollution, global warming, ozone holes, extinction of species and overpopulation are well known amongst the populations of western nations. As a result of this environmental concern, movements have sprung up all over the globe to help protect the earth and remedy the situation. From grassroots to well organized groups, these activists regard themselves as crusading for the restoration of the earth. While at first glance these movements appear to be largely secular in both origin and practice, a closer inspection reveals the presence of religion within their ranks. While some organizations that propose environmental salvation are undeniably religious, like those of the various ecologically motivated churches, even the movements not claiming any particular religious creed have evolved an ethos that is undeniably of religious origin. Furthermore, particularly amongst the ‘secular’ groups, a trend of asceticism is developing. The concept of rejecting modernity and all (or some) of its trappings is becoming more prevalent in our society, and the environmental movements are not excluded from this trend.

The environmental movement was precipitated by a changing attitude towards the world we live in. Originally, indigenous religions had ecological concern entwined in their belief systems. In a hunter-gatherer society where economics were solely composed of what was brought to the hearth from nature, the stability of the natural environment was intrinsic to the mode of living and respected as such. However, as urbanization increased the necessity of nature to mankind’s survival was somewhat marginalized. There was an increasing trend towards nature being regarded as a resource, something that was infinite and completely at man’s disposal. Christian doctrines seemed to support this concept, stating that God gave man the dominion over the earth and nature. However, with the advent of scientific thought around the time of the Enlightenment, mankind began to slowly realize and prove through science that the earth was not an infinite resource. Severe ecological problems were discovered, and links between human activity and these problems were determined. The link between the hole in the ozone layer and chlorofluorocarbons were one such instance of human invention compromising nature. The chlorofluorocarbons that were used as propellants in aerosol cans and in refrigerators actually destroyed the ozone particles that surround the earth in the ozone layer, and because of its weakened state, more radiation was leaking into the atmosphere. This promoted global warming, higher levels of smog and higher radiation exposure in countries near the ozone hole. There are many other examples. However, the realization that human activity was damaging the world around us brought a swift change in attitudes. The reliance of humanity on the wellbeing of the planet was aptly highlighted and many began to regard the earth as more than a barren ball of rock hurtling through space. The earth became our nurturer once more, a system that supported life and should be protected.

The first step in this change in attitudes was the trend of regarding the earth as sacred. At the start of the modern period, when pioneering settlers journeyed across continents to found new lands, nature was regarded as something to be overcome, to be tamed, to be contained. Now, having been tamed, the earth is regarded as a bountiful provider. Many have taken an increasing interest in nature, and nature is big business. New Zealand stakes much of its economy on a “clean, green” image of a country untouched by the ravages of modern industrialization. However, when one looks at the tourism that New Zealand and other places attract, the devotion to the beauty of nature is not merely born of admiration, it is nigh religious. The tourism industry is born of the pilgrimage industry during the Middle Ages. In medieval times, pilgrims would make their way to a holy site, a shrine, or a temple to pay homage to their chosen deity. Now, people journey to non-man-made shrines to revel in the beauty and magnificence of nature with a respect that would have formerly been reserved for God. This experience of nature as religious is accessible to many people; one does not have to travel across seas and oceans to obtain it. Nature is all around us, as a short hike in the countryside reveals. This accessibility means that more people can have the religious experience of nature, which allows more people to feel a connection, and feel motivated to do something to protect it, in the form of environmentalism.

The natural conclusion of such thinking is regarding the earth as God. Pagan religions expressed many of these concepts, the earth as a mother that nurtures or punishes. This concept has given rise to the term “Mother Nature” which is commonly used today. This personifies the earth in a way that is usually reserved for gods, an example of the growing trend of this type of thinking being popular and commonly accepted. Nature religions have once again become popular in the wake of (or in some cases instigating) environmental concern. Neopaganism and Wicca are the two main branches of modern paganism, and both have a distinct environmentalism. It is common to find Neopagans and Wiccans in the environmental movement, and many environmental movements’ practices are drawn from Neopagan theology. Environmentalists practicing these theologies have spoken openly about the earth as sacred and divine.

This phenomenon of Neopagans and Wiccans within environmentalism could be enough to define the movement as religious. However, there are further practices that the non-religious within the movement also engage in that can extend the umbrella of religion within environmentalism. Rituals that the adherents of earth worship bring with them have infiltrated the movement as a whole. During protests it is common for Neopagan rituals to be practiced, such as trancework, meditation circles and spiral dances. Ostensibly, the rituals bind the activists together in unison as they protest abuses against nature, but the believers think that by engaging in these rituals they are influencing the outcome on a spiritual plane. The truth of this is a matter of theology and metaphysics rather than debatable science; however historically one does not have to be a devout believer to be a member of a religion. Often, engaging in the practices is sufficient. In the same way that medieval Europe is called “Roman Catholic” one can label the movement “Neopagan”. And while many environmentalists might be reluctant to align themselves with New Age (or any) religion, the pervasive belief of the earth as sacred or god that permeates the environmentalist movement has its roots and practices in Neopagan and Wiccan doctrine.

The environmental movement is not solely made up of groups that have adopted a Neopagan outlook of nature. Christian, Jewish and Muslim groups have sprung up in support of the restoration of the planet. In the Western world, Christian environmentalists make up a large portion of the groups that lobby against ecological abuses. This is connected to the changing Christian interpretation of the first book of the Bible, Genesis. In the first chapter of Genesis, God creates the world and then makes man master over his Creation. Originally, this was used to justify the exploitation of natural resources; however in light of the environmental crisis Christians have re-evaluated the concept of man’s dominion over earth. The word used to further define the concept is “stewardship” which encourages a more delicate approach to nature. With the concept of stewardship comes the realization (that is also enforced in Biblical teachings) that the earth must be returned to God, and as good stewards, mankind should return it in the state that it was given to them. Along with the reinterpretation of the Genesis account, many other teachings have been regarded in a new light. The story of Noah’s Ark is regarded by some as an allegorical account of an ecological disaster, a flood on such a catastrophic scale that draws immediate parallels with images of a society wiped out by ‘global warming’. The Psalms of the Bible also glorify nature by personifying it as worshipful of God. Saints in the Catholic tradition like St Francis of Assisi preached that the animals of nature were mankind’s friends rather than foes, and that nature was sacred under God. All of these parables and Biblical mentions of nature serve to reinforce to modern Christians that nature is intrinsic in God’s creation of things, and should be preserved at all cost.

It is not surprising that religious groups have adopted the mantle of environmental concern. The Bible’s emphasis on God as a God of living nature has enabled a recalculation of the interpretation of Scripture. This cause has been taken up by the late Pope John Paul II, who stated in an address in 1989 “…Peace be with all Creation.” This is regarded as the first Papal declaration aimed at environmental issues. This is important for the environmental movement as a whole, as the Pope has regular access to media coverage. And indeed, institutionalized religion has the ability to motivate a large percentage of the population to re-evaluate their perceptions of nature. While Neopaganism is more common amongst the activist groups, Christianity holds the keys to the grassroots movement. With the claim of institutionalized religion of knowing a non-empirical truth as to the “right” and “wrong” way of things, Christianity has the potential to morally justify and endorse environmental action on an extremely large scale.

The other feature that is emerging from these environmental movements is an ascetic view towards the preservation of nature. It is widely acknowledged that it is mankind’s actions that have resulted in such ecological damage, and this leads many to reject commodities of modernity in favor of environmental salvation. The religious tendencies within these movements serve only to reinforce such ascetic action. It is not hard to see parallels between an activist living in a redwood tree with only the basics of living and St Simon the Stylite who lived atop a pole for many years. While the motivations for these extreme ascetic actions are different, the religious symbolism of making a public renunciation of contemporary times for a loftier goal sends a powerful message to their supporters and opponents alike.

Not all asceticism is so extreme. There are two kinds of asceticism present in the environmental movement that will be examined. One is the antisystemic approach, the other the prosystemic. The antisystemic asceticism is similar to the example above of St Simon the Stylite and the activist in the redwood tree. Antisystemic activism is often profoundly anti-modernity, anti-capitalist and anti-corporate. Antisystemic activists make public stands against environmental abuses by demonstrations of austerity and open defiance of their opposition, which is normally a large corporation. One such instance of antisystemic activism in New Zealand is that of the Save Happy Valley Coalition. Happy Valley activists are protesting the destruction of a pristine section of forest containing many native species of flora and fauna that the corporation Solid Energy wants to mine. Activists trek in and out of Happy Valley bringing only the necessities of survival to camp there in defiance of the mining attempts. Many activists returning claim a spiritual connection with Happy Valley, and a determination to protect it from the greed of Solid Energy. The activists involved in the Save Happy Valley Coalition aptly show the presence of antisystemic asceticism. The public demonstration of defiance by living an austere and rustic lifestyle shows the presence of asceticism. The claims of spiritual connection to Happy Valley itself show the presence of religious thought towards nature. The rejection of the corporation’s intent to mine the Valley for its natural resources demonstrates the antisystemic nature of the protest.

However, this antisystemic approach can be highly divisive. Often, the activists result in pitting themselves against a local workforce that needs their jobs. In Canada, attempts to save native forest and wildlife have resulted in a conflict between workers and environmentalists. If the activists succeed in their task of saving flora and fauna, such as the ending of the hunting of seal pups in Canada, the cost is borne by those who have lost their jobs, often those who are also underemployed. This conflict that arises out of antisystemic protest ultimately thwarts the attempts of the activists who seek to enlighten mankind to the abuses of nature. By alienating a working class section of society, they are encouraging an attitude against themselves. One of the main criticisms of the antisystemic environmental movement is that it is more concerned with being anti-corporation than it is with environmentalism. Many see protests such as the Happy Valley Coalition’s as trivial in the wake of larger environmental crises, and the added threat to their jobs positions them in absolute opposition. This leads many to dismiss claims of activists out of hand, a dangerous precedent when the list of environmental concerns grows longer by the day.

The other type of asceticism is prosystemic asceticism. This is far more common in our society, and many partake in the practice without even realizing it. Prosystemic asceticism works within the context of modernity and uses the system to bring about environmental change. One of the best examples of prosystemic asceticism within our society is the practice of recycling. While there is some debate over the actual economic and environmental benefits of recycling, the governmental endorsement overrides any criticism of the practice. Recycling falls under the category of asceticism because it encourages an inconvenient practice in order to benefit the earth, which as has been pointed out, is increasingly regarded as sacred or divine. Western societies have embraced the practice, with large amounts of manpower being devoted to the separate collection of recyclable garbage. Other prosystemic ascetic practices abound, many environmentally minded city-dwellers take public transport or a bicycle instead of a personal car in an attempt to alleviate the pollution going into the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol attempted to obtain consensus between nations over carbon emissions, resulting in “Carbon Credits” that environmentally friendly businesses or nations can obtain and trade with less eco-friendly groups in an attempt to encourage increased awareness of the harm pollution causes to nature. This has resulted in businesses re-evaluating their sources of energy to attempt to earn Carbon Credits. One such success story is that of Queen Elizabeth II Park in Christchurch which has started heating its complex using gases from a nearby landfill, resulting in millions of dollars of Carbon Credits being earned. All of these are examples of prosystemic asceticism. In part, prosystemic ascetics reject certain areas of modern life in order to better the environment, but they do not reject all of modernity or the system of capitalism that it uses. Instead, they embrace capitalism and use the system to achieve environmental goals.

The religious connotations of the environmental movement are not commonly acknowledged. In a secular world where institutionalized religion has fallen largely out of favor, to be labeled with the term ‘religion’ is not always perceived as a good thing. However it is the practice and ideologies that make a religion and the environmental movement has an abundance of both. The movement is becoming overtly spiritual with the Neopagan influence of many environmental activist groups manifesting itself in the form of ideologies of the earth as sacred or divine and the group rituals involving meditation and other forms of Neopagan practice. Within the Christian denominations further activism is perpetuated, backed by a reinterpretation of Scripture. And within both the prosystemic and the antisystemic groups, asceticism is becoming a major trend that illustrates the struggle for the earth and reinforces the religious overtones of the environmental movement.

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Bibliography

Books

Beyer, Peter
Religion and Globalization
Sage Publications, London, 1994

(Ed.) Cooper, David E. and Palmer, Joy A.
Spirit of the Environment – Religion, Value and Environmental Concern
Routledge, London & New York, 1998

Gardner, Gary T.
Inspiring Progress – Religions’ Contributions to Sustainable Development
W.W. Norton & Company, London, 2006

(Ed.) Gottlieb, Roger S.
This Sacred Earth –Religion, Nature, Environment
Routledge, New York & London, 1996

Morrison, Dorothy
The Craft – A Witch’s Book of Shadows
Llewellyn Worldwide, Minnesota, 2001

Pike, Sarah M.
New Age and Neopagan Religions in America
Columbia University Press, New York, 2004

Sheldrake, Rupert
The Rebirth of Nature – The Greening of Science and God
Bantam Books, New York, 1991

The Holy Bible

Other Sources

100 Pure New Zealand, (tourism website)

City Council,
Christchurch Rubbish and Recycling Facts and Statistics,
(June, 2006) www.ccc.govt.nz/Waste/Recycling/SolidWasteAndRecyclingStatisticsForChristchurch.pdf

Christchurch City Council
Landfill Gas to QEII wins Carbon Credits,
archived.ccc.govt.nz/CityScene/2005/April/LandfillGasToQEIIWinsCarbonCredits.asp

Penn & Teller
Bullshit! (Television series)
episode: Environmentalism

Reay, Dave
UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, GreenHouse Gas Online,

Save Happy Valley Coalition